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These processes are equally a function of the location of the project ease of accessibility, the expertise of those building it and affordability. Manufacturing Methods The dimensional limits of a material are either determined by its natural state or imposed on it by the manufacturing processes used to transform a material from its natural state into a useful building material. Its demonstrates a decidedly increment, either in its natural state or as usage is directly related to alternative application.

Here, manufactured, is consistently registered while the method by which it is the architect Eugenius processed. In both of these dimensional increment can alter a surface tional process.

Cartagena, Colombia, exploits both structural framework bamboo as structural and porous skin. For example, a quarried block of granite can be 97 cut into monolithic blocks or sliced into thin slabs—the one producing the effect of a massive wall while the other, a thin mem- brane.

The exploitation and exaggeration of these processes can be a powerful tool in the development of an architectural concept. The The line of the cave drawing difficulties of access required is conceptually extended out the on-site assembly of steel to the face of the mountain, components that had been erupting into a three-dimen- precariously transported up a sional expression of the small access road. Not only two-dimensional drawings does the rusting of the deep within the mountain. Strategies for addressing these can accommodate the differences between changes are often demonstrated at the the two for example by inserting a piece of intersections between adjoining materials.

For cork between a precisely milled wood and a The glass panels that enclose stone profile, while permit- example, each material responds to tempera- rougher concrete surface. The detail also This detail negotiates the reinforces the primary distinct dimensional concept of the project, that differences between the of a series of material and manufactured crisp glass historical layers. Site A material often operates as an index to a particular site.

The use of wood from a local forest not only inextricably links the work to its immediate physical context but to those projects that share a similar material source. The ways in which materials are connected to each other can further reiterate a context by referring to traditional building techniques.

Program Often, the performance requirements of a particular function will motivate material selection. A wood railing carries with it material warmth that is smooth to the touch, or a stone staircase will withstand centuries of wear.

Cultural Materials often carry symbolic expectations, as in a granite tomb or a marble city hall or a wood cabin. Granite implies eternity, marble alludes to grandeur, and wood to a 98 natural primitiveness. It does not necessarily mean that all tombs should be granite, but it is important to be aware that traditional 99 Blocks of locally hewn granite its surfaces, transforming a associations exist, and they may be unique to form the cubic mass of prosaic and unremarkable each culture in which a work might be situated.

Compostela, Spain, built in The material is converted As Constantinos Doxiadis has Propylaea at the entry to the famously diagrammed in his complex.

Space encompasses the stage for human activity, the cadence of our movements, the duration of our experiences. It was probably August Schmarzow who, in , first argued that the manipulation of space is the principal defining characteristic of architecture and what distinguishes it from the other arts, such as sculpture.

This is not to say that architectural space did not exist before —certainly the Pantheon exists as an emphatic spatial volume—only that its identity had not been adequately described. Rowe and Slutzky introduce mulation of Einsteinian space—time as an the distinction between literal transpar- intrinsic aspect of the new architecture.

Like Giedion, Zevi also argued that Savoye in Poissy , for example, time was an important component of the affords numerous such spatial transparen- newer concepts of spatial definition, incor- cies fig. Beneath the roof of the outdoor Le Corbusier and Pierre Jeanneret: Villa Savoye, porating the experiments of the Italian pavilion, one already participates in several Poissy, France, —31 futurists, for whom speed was a Muse.

C , which Here, one finds the spatial depiction of the posed a more articulate argument regarding begins beyond the house on the left, visible twentieth century fully realized. Just as a street can exhibit where there was once over spatial qualities, both formal arcades, the very and experiential, an arcade is successful Passage des perhaps the most spatial Panoramas bottom of plan, form of street. Just as the space within a deflated balloon is difficult to grasp, and that within an inflated balloon is clearly intuited, in order to grasp a spatial figure—or spatial zone—a sense of boundary is necessary.

However, it is possible that several spatial zones might overlap, and that it is possible to occupy several of these zones simultane- ously. The complexity of such spatial overlaps is resolved perceptually, with the viewer understanding one set of boundaries at a time, perceiving additional zones through movement and shifts of viewpoint. We can usually understand the relative dimensions of height and breadth simply by standing within a space. Depth, however, requires at least some movement into or around that space.

One can see made solid. The theorists find that time is an inextricable solid the principal spatial solidification of space makes sequence in the interior of its intangibility immediately component of space. It altered the ways in which space the beams of a ceiling, or the patterns in a was represented in architectural renderings.

The measures of repetition are essential It provided architects with a tool for under- in understanding the depth of a space. In order to emphasize becomes an implicit subject of the work. While height and breadth are clearly composed of elliptical objects curved surfaces. Cons- and imaginary ancient city, tructed in a false perspective, to eventually return to the the sets represent the seven real streets and spaces of roads of Thebes within the Vicenza as perceived through understood when viewing a surface, an relatively limited depth of fresh eyes.

This is a technique that was developed most themselves called panoramas or cycloramas— effectively in the architecture of the late appeared in cities throughout Europe and Renaissance and baroque periods, where one the United States, and are continuing to be can find numerous examples of relatively flat constructed throughout Asia.

As a tool, or gently molded surfaces invested with panoramas changed the way designers could waves of implicit depths. The rapid development of video the midst of another time and place. In the early twentieth century, people were exposed to spaces that were previously unthinkable, spaces initiated by internal combustion, witnessed through auto glass 11 and dedicated to velocity, the combination of distance and time. New concepts of spatial definition emerged, enveloped in Space structures of heroic massiveness and rhythms The Lower Roadway of New design.

This sunken roadway of Historic Places, it is a Jersey Route William is naturally ventilated and lit, unique spatial invention— of increased rapidity. New types of architec- Sloan, Fred Lavis, Sigvald open to the sky along its a cathedral of sorts—a deeply ture appeared, not only highway construc- Johannesson, and the New northeast edge, with its beamed concrete nave tions themselves, but also the buildings and Jersey State Highway southeast flank a series of alternating stroboscopic Commission, completed in arcades exhibiting, sequen- shafts of daylight with the spaces that began to materialize along these —born of the postwar tially when leaving the city: a ghosted diagonal traces of new roadways, such as toll plazas, rest stops, necessity for the efficient, chasm of concrete light wells, cross streets above and a fueling stations, and so on.

The result is an elongation of spaces and the development of an anamorphic architecture, one in which landscapes, spaces, and volumes are distorted in compensation for the visual foreshortening and condensed observations prompted by the highway.

Karl Friedrich Schinkel was mobility of the viewer around below, then strolling through highly skilled in the construc- and through an urban space the upper vestibule, which tions of panoramas and with frequent opportunities provides a vantage point as in illusionistic stage set designs, for retrospection is an a panorama: elevated above and, as historian Kurt Forster important aspect of spatial the plaza, with columns has demonstrated, applied organization. His famous framing fragmented views of this knowledge to his rendering of the main an urban panorama of an ideal architectural designs for staircase of his Altes Museum Berlin that vies for attention Berlin.

Size is how big something is—its actual dimension. However scale is relative, it can be defined only in relation to something. Once inside, a to multiple contexts. Upon the hill, one finds the distance, what orientation he or she is located. Scale is dependent on context, a context that can range from the smallest nanoparticle to a vast landscape.

Scale is fleeting, as a building for example can simultaneously belong to multiple scales. And, finally, there is the imagined scale— where the mythology of the object has established a scale greater or smaller than the actual.

Esja beyond. BODY The body is a powerful determinant of scale. It has the ability to generate measure through either its necessity to physically engage an environment at multiple scales and at multiple speeds be it a handle, a car, a parade or through locating its eye in relationship to that environment a window, a vista so that it can be perceptually experienced.

The work of this Dutch group coalesced around the musings published in an eponymous magazine. During its brief period of publi- cation, De Stijl showcased images of archi tecture, painting, sculpture, and furniture-making amongst literary musings that trended towards a heady sociocultural cocktail of transnationalist politics and universalist metaphysics. Painting was singled out as the seminal visual discipline capable of expressing a floating, unbounded spatial continuum.

Initially, there was resistance to the inclusion of architecture due to its obligation to address structural and func- tional needs. Our external envi- ronment cannot yet be realized as the pure plastic expression of harmony. The house forcefully made a case for the expres- sive capabilities of architecture and became a canonical representation of the spatial creating territories of use in place of tradi- windows, partitions, and furniture—are continuum admired by the De Stijl group. The geometry, surfaces, House is beholden to the same conceptual at a variety of scales and finished in bright and color of all of these components were thinking as the building shell.

Walls on the primary colors. This consistency of treat- carefully considered and controlled by exterior are simple rectangular surfaces ment extends from large architectural Rietveld. While providing a reasonably that in many cases appear to float in defi- surfaces, such as a balcony wall, to small accommodating domestic environment, ance of gravity. Both functions to one individual. This scale of engagement is most of an automobile test track, discernable within domestic spaces whose the other by the repetitive primary responsibility is to house the body structural frame dimen- sioned by the large machines and is critical in accessible spaces that and assembly lines of the accommodate specialized user needs factory floor.

Perceptual The eye of the observer locates the origin of the gaze that establishes both the horizon line and the cone of vision. As this gaze is superimposed onto an infinite picture plane, the near and the far can be brought into immediate relation to each other, giving scale to an otherwise scaleless environment. These foregrounds introduce and, on the other, a singular scale to distant backgrounds and horizons by and monumental column juxtaposing them alongside the scale of the made of black granite.

As one views the Eiffel Tower from a distance, it is a marker, an orienting pin that protrudes from a once homogenous Parisian skyline.

Yet as one approaches, its scale transforms to a monumental one, an upward thrusting demonstration of engineering ingenuity that dwarfs the observer. And finally, from within its rooftop restaurant, it is an instrument, a camera lens, scaled to the body, with which to frame the city below. On Multiple Scales Scale is relative—and it is the various One might ask—what scale must a work be? As the cone of than-life scale, one that impresses or awes.

For example, when considered of operation that it serves. And these scales through the wide-angle lens of an urban are often at odds with each other. It that constitutes the city. Here, exaggerated exists at the scale of the street as it interacts proportions and crisp profiles allow this with adjacent buildings. It exists at the scale relationship to become legible at the scale of the body, which allows an occupant to of the city. That very same building, however, access it and interact with it both physically approached from a lesser distance and The independence of the responsibility and this and spatially.

Here, dent, programmatic and walls are freed of structural spatial interpretations. Louis, structure that marks the site overlay onto the ancient between buildings. Here the designed by the architect of the origin of the city medieval twelfth-century architecture operates as Eero Saarinen and structural and shifts to an imagined fortification.

This concept of intermediary device that engineer Hannskarl Bandel, scale as gateway to an separate but connected bridges the intimate scale of transcends its status as a expansive western landscape.

Constructed from concept informs the development of a scavenged detritus, it was building at multiple scales. In other words, a simultaneously full-scale detail, a door, a room, a building is devel- room and model of the world, one that housed an incrus- oped as variations of an overriding concept tation of talismanic traces that informs the totality of a work.

Reconstruction by Peter Bissegger, Hanover, —83 Quotidian versus Monumental Buildings, cities, and landscapes are experienced at an everyday scale: the familiar of the daily and the prosaic. It is through making this scale unfamiliar, seemingly larger or smaller than the familiar in relationship to a specific context, that monumentality is achieved.

But they can also have a larger- than-life scale—one that operates at the scale of the imagination. Imagine if one were to begin with a box, a dark box— or a surface, a dark surface—how might light be intro- duced into that space or onto that surface? How might light structure a space or surface so as to bring order to it—bring it scale, bring it texture, bring it hierarchy?

Its traces not only help to define the dimensions of the works exhibited but transform the gallery itself into a work of art. The roughness of the chapel. As France —59 , is a large illuminated focal points, but passes through that produces an expanded surfaces come under the spotlight, they can concrete volume whose the sanctuary itself spatial experience—a continuous transforma- alternately advance and recede from view, apertures obscure the direct transforms spatially as the source of natural light.

Not surfaces alternately flatten tion of form. Materials concrete surfaces animated come and go. Yet, it is not the light, per se, that creates can appear altered as their textures transform by kaleidoscopic patterns of the space—it is the shadows that are cast and volumes can seem distorted as their that construct the space, for as Louis Kahn proportions appear to change.

Textures can be revealed and shadows that are cast that registers the exaggerated through exposure to light, just generative presence of light. One could even say that his built forms are a result of the sculpting of light, and that it is this light that con- structs the space of his architecture.

His works are perceived as compositions of light that are literally experienced as one is drawn from space to space and further enriched as the gaze is guided toward the imagined spaces created by distant illumi- nations appearing within the surfaces that define the very same spaces through which one is moving.

Steven Holl: The Chapel of St. Ignatius, completed in , it is the sculpting of light that not only produces the three-dimensional forms that emerge from the rectangular shell of the chapel, but it is the light that these forms in turn produce that renders tangi- ble St. The necessity of fixed three- dimensional form gives way to continuously transforming spatial compositions that are defined by these intersections of surface and light.

In the expansion to the Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, the introduction of light occurs at multiple scales. At the scale of the landscape, the enormous buildings of Steven Holl: Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City, Missouri, completed light that serve to illuminate the embedded view of exterior light boxes galleries operate by day as sculptural pavil- ions around and between which leisure activity occurs, and by night as luminous lanterns that suggest imagined worlds lurking below the surface.

At the building scale, these volumes create Piranesian spaces of light and shadow that draw the visitor to the galleries below. And, finally, at the infrastructural scale, the fusing of structure, air, environment, and light produces the optical instruments that can be precisely calibrated to experi- ence the collection of art.

It intensifies and fades, and that admits both natural water would be collected. Both interior. Here, light has both incisions simultaneously Pointillist painting whose as one experiences it from a physical and spiritual convey religious meaning.

Chiaroscuro within a fairly shallow space. Volumes can of an object from each other. The crisp profile lines that decreased. Spatial sequences are introduced to the often colored context in which it is render legible contrasting patterns of light as one is drawn from dark to light. Alternately, perceived, it follows that an understanding and dark, control the effect of this duality. Red Distortion is a symbol of luck in Asian cultures and often Spatial experience can be intentionally Color the color worn by brides, yet in South Africa transformed through choreographing the In his Theory of Colors, Johann Wolfgang it can symbolize mourning.

As darker spaces inasmuch as light, shade, and color together can alter perception and behaviors. For example, spatial depth can be exaggerated within a shallow field by juxtaposing a lighter colored surface against a darker background.

Or a white volume against a black background will appear larger than a black volume against a white background: The perception of scale is always a function of the interplay between forms. Color can compensate for light or darkness and provide solace or destination or it can animate an otherwise uniform surface. Instrument Entire buildings can operate as instruments for light, and nowhere is this more evident than in the Pantheon in Rome.

The building is an instrument that produces a visible measure of the passing of time. Often, these Arp, and Sophie Taeuber-Arp optical devices motivate exaggerated forms and opened in , deploys that are capable of directing or modifying color as a device that negates any sense of materiality while generic light for a specific interior condition. This mechanical brise soleil sun breaker retracts and opens its lenses as the sun intensifies or fades, the resulting spatial and audial, as the metal shingles click open or closed effect being one of flickering 13 shadows and changing landscapes.

As individuals move through a field of optic rods and floor speakers, emitted light and sound register their The painted corrugated-metal containers of passing movements, producing a siding of the houses in freighters, these colored constantly transforming— Valparaiso serve to delay panels introduce a vibrant and fleeting—spatial field.

Reputed to community. The parallel concrete vaults by aluminum rows of the iconic concrete reflectors that are attached cycloid vaults that distinguish beneath the skylights.

Skylights located vaults into the gallery spaces between the extruded shells below, where the artworks of concrete allow natural are displayed. Le Corbusier, in his Villa Savoye in Poissy, France, constructs a series of archi- tectural compositions that subsequently choreographs the movement through the building and landscape.

A ramp carries the gaze diagonally through the building, from the entry vestibule up toward the raised courtyard and, finally, toward the sky. The order in which elements architectural works that mark that route. Like is transformed into an endlessly complex and are experienced and the way in which they the Stations of the Cross that line cathedral animate one. And it is the structuring of are framed become powerful lenses through walls and religious walks and are used especially these relationships through a variety of which a work is given meaning.

A stair can collapse Filmic permanent memory. James is Regardless, it is the introduction of space view but from multiple vantage points as one entombed. El Camino de Santiago is marked through time that produces a series of spatial strolls through the architectural landscape. In with Romansesque churches with enormous and formal relationships, a fourth dimension this case, architecture can be thought of and portals designed to accommodate vast to architecture. The sequence elements contained within initiates from the edge of the its historical narrative.

Narrative Architecture can tell a story—real or imagined—about an individual, a place, an event. The circulation can operate as an armature that collects and frames the visual icons that render the narrative legible. Theatrical Architecture has the ability to frame the relationship between its various occupants and, in so doing, either establish or reinforce various behaviors.

A sequence can Here, an enormous ramp be highly choreographed and follow a defines the space of circula- tion, of art gallery, of interior specific physical and spatial itinerary or court, and of building form. It can be defined with a clearly of the visitors defining the articulated path as with a bridge, stair, or space of the interior.

This sequence landscape, beginning with the bridge and continuing as is often associated with ramps or generous one descends the central staircases, where the speed of movement staircase. Each level radiates allows for an extended gaze that scans and from this spiraling stair, which in turn registers collects the near and the far.

Like a symphony, an extended sequence often has an identifiable theme that begins with a whisper and concludes with a bang, exploring along the way variations on the central theme.

It often responds to contex- tual conditions—a narrowing of the space, an elevational difference—and occupancy— a trickle of wanderers versus a crowded stampede. Its majestic staircase triumphantly extends the circuitous rocky ascent that is initiated in the sea far below it, culminating the sequence with the view of a distant horizon. Three can occur. Random Here, the accidental encounter is privileged over the controlled, where the movement through a building or landscape is intention- ally unstructured.

This creates an experience that allows for a continuous recombination of architectural experiences, with each combination producing a unique reading of the work. It can either amplify and, in so doing, render legible an existing infrastructural network or it can overlay a distinct spatial, material, and temporal dimension.

Amplification Movement systems can originate within the context in which the work is situated. They can attach themselves to existing circulation networks, amplifying their presence into three-dimensional form, thereby blurring the boundaries between exterior and interior, landscape and architecture. Interface Studio Labics and Nemesi Italy. Often, they introduce the human being into a liminal space between two conditions, establishing a critical dialogue that allows one to be understood from the lens of the other.

Be it the movement of air, water, electricity, art, once a year from the every day. The city of Paris is for an axial procession up the stairs and into displayed as a picturesque the central nave, versus the everyday canvas as one moves up the perimeter doors that provide access to the exuberant, and now iconic, local and the touristic.

Courthouses also have 14 escalators that traverse the exterior of the building. But let me tell you something critical. Your snapshots have to be good in order to make them look great using the post-processing tools.

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